In News

The First Advance Estimates (FAE) of National Income at both Constant (2011-12) and Current Prices, for the financial year 2021-22 has been released by the National Statistical Office.

• Earlier, RBI in his professional forecasters survey, pegged the median value of GDP growth for this fiscal at 9.5%.

First Advance estimates

• The Indian economy is expected to expand at 9.2 per cent in 2021-22.
• There is a sharp increase in nominal GDP (estimated to expand by 17.6% this fiscal).
• Double-digit wholesale price inflation (WPI) and the persistence of high consumer price inflation (CPI) have led to the surge in nominal GDP and added an upside to tax collections this year.

Three reasons these advance estimates could change:

1. These estimates are based on the limited information which typically undergo a change when new information is available.
2. The emergence of the omicron variant in this last quarter of the current fiscal year.
3. Pointed by the National Statistical Office, “the First Revised Estimates for 2020-21, due for release on 31.01.2022, may also lead to a revision in growth rates reflected in FAE.”

How estimates have been calculated?

The sector-wise estimates have been compiled using indicators like:

• Index of Industrial Production (IIP) of first 7 months of the financial year
• Financial performance of Listed Companies in the Private Corporate sector available upto quarter ending September, 2021
• 1st Advance Estimates of Crop production
• Accounts of Central & State Governments
• Bank Deposits & Credits
• Net Tonne Kilometres and Passenger Kilometres for Railways
• Passengers and Cargo handled by Civil Aviation
• Cargo handled at Major Sea Ports
• Sales of Commercial Vehicles, etc., available for first 8 months of the financial year.

• The total tax revenue used for GDP compilation includes non-GST revenue and GST revenue.
• The Budget Estimates of tax revenue for 2021-22, available on CGA and CAG websites have been used for estimating taxes on products at current prices.
• For compiling taxes on products at constant prices, volume extrapolation is done using volume growth of taxed goods and services.
• The total product subsidies were compiled using the latest information on major subsidies viz. Food, Urea, Petroleum.

What does the GDP data tell us about the state of the economy that could influence budget priorities?

• The share of private consumption in GDP has been falling since the pandemic struck. The level of private consumption is still 2.9 per cent below its pre-pandemic year.
• The ratio of private consumption to GDP fell to 54.7 per cent in 2021-22 from 55.6 per cent in 2019-20.
• GDP in construction is barely above its pre-pandemic level, while trade, hotels, tourism and other contact-based services, which are also labour-intensive, lag the pre-pandemic levels.
• Similarly, a pick-up in demand for MGNREGA jobs means a lack of rural employment opportunities.
• Rural wages for agriculture and non-agriculture have been flat in real terms.
• Weak tractor and motorcycle demand mirror the weakness in the rural economy.
• GDP data shows that investments are doing better than private consumption with their share in GDP crossing the 2019-20 levels, due to government investments.

Available solution

• The budget will need to extend support to rural areas till the situation normalises.
• A revival of consumption demand is also needed for a broad-based revival of investments.
• Union Budget need to continue pressing the pedal hard on infrastructure-focused capital expenditure.

National Family Health Survey-5

In News

The National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019-21) has shown that fertility continues to decline in India.

• The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) has declined from 2.2 (NFHS-4, 2015-16) to 2.0, below the replacement rate of 2.1, where a mother is replaced by a daughter.
• The TFR is the number of children a woman can be expected to have during her lifetime.

Background

• From an estimated TFR of around 6 in 1951, the rate declined to 5.2 in 1971, 3.6 in 1991 and 2.4 in 2011.
• Since 2000, the pace of decline in TFR may have slowed. As the TFR in most states declined during the period 2015-16 and 2019-21, we can expect it to continue to decline for some time.

Key Findings

• Kerala and Tamil Nadu show the TFR rising from 1.6 and 1.7 respectively to 1.8 during this period.
• Only a few large states have a TFR below 1.7 — Punjab, West Bengal and the UT of Jammu and Kashmir.
• The two states with the highest fertility rate — Bihar (TFR 3.0) and Uttar Pradesh (TFR 2.4).
• The contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) by all methods (modern and other methods such as rhythm) is higher in UP (62.4 per cent) compared to Bihar (55.8 per cent), although both are lower than India (66.7 per cent).
• The percentage of adult literate women is 57.8 in Bihar and 66.1 in UP, compared to 71.5 in India.
• Women’s status indicators are generally somewhat better in UP compared to Bihar but lower than in India as a whole.
• Women with 10 or more years of schooling are 28.8 per cent in Bihar and 39.3 per cent in UP compared to 41.0 per cent in India.
• Use of modern contraceptive methods increased from 47.8 per cent in NFHS-4 to 56.5 per cent in NFHS-5, which largely contributed to fertility decline.
• Female sterilisation has been the single most dominant method of contraception, accounting for 67 per cent of the total in NFHS-5.

Some other findings

• The proportion of stunted children below the age of 5 has marginally declined from 38.4 percent to 35.4 percent.
• Inadequate diet among children less than 23 months of age is perhaps a major cause. Both breastfeeding and non-breastfeeding children 6-23 months of age receiving an adequate diet are estimated to be only 12.7 per cent and 11.3 per cent respectively.
• The NFHS-5 results also highlight two major public health concerns – obesity and tobacco use- both known to be risks for non-communicable diseases.
• Nearly a fourth of all women and men and men are overweight or obese (BMI = 25.0 kg/m2) and this proportion is increasing over the years.
• More than a third of men (38 per cent) were reported to be using some kind of tobacco.

Future predictions

• The medium-fertility variant of the UN Population Division’s estimate of population peaking at 165 crore around 2050 will be realised.
• According to SRS, the birth rate is higher and the death rate is lower than its model estimates.
• However, the TFR estimates in NFHS-5 are lower than that predicted by the model, which may provide some balancing effect.
• The estimates for sex ratio at birth (SRB), the number of girls per 1,000 boys, vary.

Conclusion

• The NFHS-5 results indicate that progress has been made in almost all areas.
• Bihar and Uttar Pradesh need to strengthen their family planning and maternal and child health programmes as well as improve women’s status to bring TFR to replacement level or below.
• The pace of improvement in improving sex ratio at birth needs to be maintained.
• Child nutrition programmes may require a rethink and more active involvement of the community is needed to address this serious problem.
• Attention is required to reduce public health risks arising from increasing obesity and high tobacco use.

Chang’e 5 lunar lander

In News

China’s Chang’e 5 lunar lander has found the first-ever on-site evidence of water on the surface of the moon.

• It is revealed that the lunar soil at the landing site contains less than 120 parts-per-million (ppm) water or 120 grams water per ton, and a light, vesicular rock carries 180 ppm, which are much drier than that on Earth.

What is the Chang’e-5 mission?

• Chang’e-5 probe, named after the Chinese Moon goddess, is the Chinese National Space Administration’s (CNSA) lunar sample return mission.
• The goal of the mission is to land in the Mons Rumker region of the moon, where it will operate for one lunar day, which is two weeks long and return a 2 kg sample of the lunar rock possibly by digging about 2 metres deep into the surface of the Moon.
• The Chang’e-5 spacecraft landed on one of the youngest mare basalts located at a mid-high latitude on the moon. It measured water on the spot and retrieved samples weighing 1,731 grams.

Components

• The mission comprises a lunar orbiter, a lander and an ascent probe that will lift the lunar samples back into orbit and return them back to Earth.
• Chang’e-5 comprises a robotic arm, a coring drill, a sample chamber and is also equipped with a camera, penetrating radar and a spectrometer.

How water content is estimated?

• The water content can be estimated since the water molecule or hydroxyl absorbs at a frequency of about three micrometers.
• It was the solar wind that contributed to the most humidity of lunar soil as it brought hydrogen that makes up the water.
• The additional 60 ppm water in the rock may originate from the lunar interior.

What else study tell us?

• The moon had turned drier within a certain period, owing probably to the degassing of its mantle reservoir.
• The returned samples are a mixture of granules both on the surface and beneath.

Chinese Lunar Exploration Program

The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program has four phases:

• Phase one: orbiting the Moon, completed by Chang’e 1 in 2007 and Chang’e 2 in 2010.
• Phase two: soft landing and deploying rover on the Moon, completed by Chang’e 3 (2013) and Chang’e 4 (launched in December 2018, landed on the far side of the Moon in January 2019).
• Phase three: returning lunar samples, completed by Chang’e 5. The backup of Chang’e-5, the Chang’e 6 mission, is also a lunar sample-return mission.
• Phase four: in-situ resource utilization, and constructing an International Lunar Research Station near the lunar south pole.

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Introduction

National Crime Office statistics for 2017 were released on October 21, 2019. The report found that Tamil Nadu was the head of serious crimes followed by Maharashtra. The report was created by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) which reports to the Ministry of the Interior. The NCRB submits 3 reports per year, namely crime in India, India and statistics on prison and accidental deaths and suicides in India.

National Criminal Records Bureau

• The NCRB is a nodal agency reporting to the Union’s Interior Ministry to obtain an authentic source of crime data in a variety of settings, including accidents, suicides in all states of the country and prisons for questions policy and investigation.
• It was established in 1986 as a central police organization.
• Its headquarters are in New Delhi.
• It implements and monitors the Crime and Crime Tracking Network System (CCTNS) agency, a mission-mode project as part of the national e-government plan.
• He also provides training in information technology (IT) and fingerprint science to Indian and foreign police.
• The NCRB publishes 4 annual publications on crime, prison statistics, accidental deaths, suicides and fingerprints. These publications serve as major benchmarks for crime statistics.

Report highlights

• The increase in IPC-related crimes was highest in Delhi, Assam and Kerala. In contrast, IPC-related crimes have decreased considerably in Mizoram, Gujarat, Himachal, Tripura and Nagaland.
• About fifty crimes at Lakh were recorded in 2017. This is an increase of 3.6% compared to the previous report published in 2016.
• Murder cases registered across the country have decreased by 6%. The number of murders in 2016 was 30,450 and in 2017 it was reduced to 28,653.
• The NCRB reported that the number of kidnappings and kidnappings has increased by 9% since 2016.
• Haryana led the way in sedition (crimes against the state). This increase is mainly due to the great unrest of Jat’s reserves in Haryana in 2017. Cases of sedition include damage to public goods, aid to anti-social elements, etc.

The maximum number of cases of crimes against women was increasing. The majority of crimes against women under the IPC have been recorded as follows:

• Of the crimes against women, 33.2% were victims of cruelty from their husbands or relatives
• Assault on women with intent to undermine their modesty contributed to 33.2
• Kidnappings and abductions of women contributed 21%
• The violation contributed 10%

The crime against CS has been reported as:

• 30% of crimes against SC were simple injury cases
• SC / ST (atrocity prevention) cases accounted for 13.4%

Key results

Registration and crime rate

• In 2017, the case register increased by 3.6% compared to 2016.
• Delhi had the highest crime rate in the country with 1,050 criminal acts of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) per lakh of the city’s population.
• This was more than four times the national average of 238.

Crimes against the State

• There was a 30% increase in incidents of crimes against the state compared to 2016.
• This category includes, among others, crimes such as sedition, war against the country and damage to public property.
• The maximum number of these crimes was reported by Haryana, followed by UP. The main reason was the act of damage to public property.
• The maximum crimes were committed by leftist extremists (LWE), followed by insurgents and terrorists in the northeast (jihadists and other elements).

Crime against women

• The number of crimes committed against women increased by 6% in 2016.
• Most of the cases were recorded under the heading "Cruelty inflicted by husband or relatives", followed by “Assault against women with the intention of scandalizing their modesty”.
• The maximum number of cases was recorded in Uttar Pradesh (UP), followed by Maharashtra and West Bengal.

Cybercrimes

• Bangalore tops the list of metropolitan cities in the country in terms of the number of cybercrimes recorded.
• Bengaluru was followed by Mumbai and Jaipur.

Riots

• Of the 58,880 incidents of riots reported, community and sectarian riots accounted for 723 and 183 incidents respectively.
• There were 805 riots due to caste conflicts and 1909 riots for political reasons.
• The maximum number of incidents in Bihar has been reported, followed by Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Crime against SC / ST:

• Incidents recorded as part of the Program for Scheduled Atrocity Prevention Program recorded an increase, from 5,082 reported incidents in 2016 to 5,775 in 2017.
• Incidents of scheduled tribe crimes increased from 844 in 2016 to 720 in 2017.

What is the basis of the classification?

• Offenses for misdemeanours have been classified outside the provisions of the Indian Penal Code and other special and local laws.
• Although the report indicates that the socio-economic factors or the reasons for the crimes have not been captured, the non-legislative parameters for the classification of some crimes have not been sufficiently explained.
• This raises questions based on the classification.
• The purpose of such a classification would only be achieved if a more detailed description of the categories was provided for reasons.
• Unlike crime statistics, prison statistics do not provide any information on crimes in trials and convicts.
• This avoids cross-references and examination of the figures in the two reports.

What are the other concerns?

• It is impossible to obtain information on the development of sentences for various crimes and in several States or to formulate a policy on penalties.
• There are concerns about the methods of calculating and presenting data.
• While recording recidivism rates, the report collects state-level information on the number of minors and adults who were arrested before but not convicted, and those who have already been convicted.
• However, the reliability of this data is questionable, given the understanding of recidivism.
• It involves the arrest of people who may not have been previously convicted of crimes suspected or accused of having committed, and who cannot be convicted again.
• This is particularly problematic because we know that socially and economically marginalized people are in conflict with the law several times and are regularly arrested and released on suspicion.
• There are methodological concerns regarding the rate of freight coverage calculation.
• It is measured by the total number of cases cleared by the police and not by the total number of cases for investigation.

ALSO, SEE RELATED RAJYA SABHA VIDEOS

• Article 131: Special powers of Supreme Court
• Carbon trading & climate change
• Anticipatory Bail
• The Aircraft (amendment) bill, 2020
• Education & Aspiring India
• Endangered Species

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The post RSTV topic on NATIONAL CRIME RECORDS BUREAU REPORT 2018 appeared first on .

Introduction

Recently, the government of Kerala has filed a civil lawsuit before the Supreme Court (SC) challenging the Citizenship Law (CAA) of 2019, under the provisions of Article 131 of the Constitution of India. Kerala asserts that the law violates the doctrine of basic structure, as it goes against the principle of equality, freedom and secularism which is part of the basic structure of the Constitution.

CAA 2019 grants Indian citizenship to persecuted non-Muslim minorities, viz. Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parisians and Christians who emigrated to India from Afghanistan, Pakistan and Bangladesh on or before December 31, 2014.

Article 131: Original jurisdiction

The SC (as the Federal Court of India) has the initial jurisdiction to settle disputes which arise between different units of the Federation of India, such as:

• Center and one or more states; or
• Center and any state on one side and one or more states on the other; or
• Two or more states

However, there are some points to consider:

• The dispute must relate to a question of law or fact upon which the existence / extension of a right depends. Therefore, questions of a political nature are excluded.
• Any claim filed with the Supreme Court by a private citizen against the Center or a State cannot be the subject of this article.
• In addition, the provisions mentioned in this article are subject to other provisions of the Constitution, that is to say that if a remedy to a problem is provided for by another article of the Constitution, this article will not be available. . For example, in the event of water disputes between two or more States, the reparation of these conflicts is envisaged in article 262 of the Constitution and not in article 131.

Supreme Court’s stance on Article 131

There have been two contradictory judgments of the Supreme Court on the question of whether a state can file an original application under section 131 to challenge the constitutionality of a central law.

The first sentence reported in 2012 – State of Madhya Pradesh c. Union of India – held that states could not challenge a central law under section 131.

The second sentence, Jharkhand State vs. Bihar State, adopted the opposite opinion in 2015 and referred the question of the law to a larger bank of the Supreme Court for a final decision. The Kerala trial is based on the 2015 verdict.

However, in the case of the West Bengal government in 2017, the SC proclaimed that the state government could not seek any human rights remedies. The case was filed under article 32 of the Constitution which questions the validity of the ‘Aadhaar law’. The Court also held that “fundamental rights are accessible to individuals: citizens or non-citizens against the State and not for state entities”.

How is the request from the government of Kerala different from other requests?

The Kerala government’s written request is not the same as the other challenges expected to be heard in the High Court on January 22. Kerala presented its petition challenging the constitutional validity of the CAA law on the basis of section 131 of the Indian Constitution, so this is an original prosecution. The petition refers to the mechanism by which states can challenge the center.

Several applications have been filed against the CAA law before the Supreme Court. The superior court may hear the applications separately or consolidate them, but the request of the government of Kerala cannot be rejected with these applications.

Can the Supreme Court test the validity of law under Article 131?

Legislative competence: A law must be challenged before the Court if it exceeds the legislative competence of the drafter.

Jurisdiction can be verified by verifying that the object of the law is part of which of the three lists,  the competent authority has framed the law in this regard.

Violation of rights: the Court can verify whether a particular law violates which type of rights, whether fundamental or constitutional rights.

Kerala’s request relates to the violation of fundamental rights and not to the legislative competence of Parliament. If someone had presented the law for violation of their fundamental rights, the SC would have investigated the legality of the problem.

Violation of the Constitution: the Court can prove a law if the Constitution is ultra-violet. In this regard, there are the following doctrines which have been developed by the SC over a period of time.

Basic structure doctrine: The basic structure doctrine designates the basic features of the Constitution, which cannot be changed/amended, as they form the basis of the Constitution on which its basic principles/existence rests.

Doctrine of marrow and substance: Marrow means “true nature” or “essence of something” and substance means “the most important or essential part of something”. According to the doctrine of marrow and substance, when the question arises as to whether a particular law relates to a particular question (mentioned in one list or another), the Court seeks the merits (that is, say the essential characteristic) of the question. Consequently, if the substance falls within the Union list, the fortuitous invasion of the central law on the subject mentioned in the list of States does not invalidate it.

Doctrine of colouring legislation: The literal meaning of coloring legislation is that, by virtue of the “color” or “appearance” of the power conferred for a particular purpose, the legislator cannot attempt to achieve another end which would not otherwise be competent to legislate It comes into play when a legislature does not have the power to legislate on a particular question, but indirectly.

Way to go

The Supreme Court must dismiss trials with political influence and focus on cases that raise crucial questions of law and constitutional validity.

State representatives should be receptive, open to their opinions when laws are enacted, rather than creating a subsequent situation.

The Center and the State must realize that federalism is a two-way street. They must respect the Constitution and each other.

States should refrain from defying central laws, as this could lead to the collapse of the constitutional mechanism.

ALSO, SEE RELATED RAJYA SABHA VIDEOS

• Carbon trading & climate change
• Anticipatory Bail
• The Aircraft (amendment) bill, 2020
• Education & Aspiring India
• Endangered Species

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Introduction

India has been at the forefront of an intense battle to protect the environment by reducing its carbon footprint. To this end, it has invested heavily in low-carbon technologies, has successfully switched to renewable energy, and has intensified its efforts to protect forests. During this process, it obtained hundreds of millions of carbon credits or emission reduction certificates, also called CERs.

According to the current Kyoto Protocol climate agreement, carbon credits are used in the market- based carbon trading system. In December, the United Nations Conference on Climate Change or COP 25 was held in Madrid. COP 25 should have finalized the rules for a new global carbon market under the Paris Agreement. For India, one of the goals and objectives of the Madrid conference was to win the right to sell their earned carbon credits with such effort.

What is carbon trading?

It is a market-based system aimed at reducing the greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming, in particular the carbon dioxide emitted by the combustion of fossil fuels.

The process involves buying and selling permits and credits to emit carbon dioxide, using the cap- and-trade mechanism to achieve emission reductions.

What does Cap and Trade mean?

It is also called Emission Trading. The system works by setting a general limit or limit on the amount of allowable emissions from significant sources of carbon, including the energy industry, the automotive industry and air travel.

Kyoto Protocol and carbon trading

• The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which commits its Parties to setting binding international emission reduction targets.
• The Kyoto protocol allows countries with emission units to sell this excess capacity to countries that exceed their targets.
• Parties with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B parts) have agreed to limit or reduce emissions.
• These objectives are expressed in authorized emission levels, or allocated quantities, during the 2008-2012 commitment periods.
• Authorized emissions are divided into units of assigned quantity (AAU).
• A new product is created in the form of emission reductions or eliminations.
• Since carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas, people are just talking about trading with carbon. Carbon is now tracked and traded like any other product. This is called the “carbon market”.

Paris Agreement

• The 2016 Paris Agreement is a historic international agreement that brings together nearly 200 countries to establish a common goal of reducing global greenhouse gas emissions in an effort to fight climate change.
• The pact aims to keep the global temperature increase below 2 degrees Celsius from pre- industrial levels and to try to further limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
• To this end, each country has committed to implementing specific action plans that will limit its greenhouse gas emissions.
• The Accord calls on rich and developed countries to provide financial and technological support to the developing world in their quest to fight and adapt to climate change.

Carbon markets under the Paris agreement

• The provisions concerning the creation of a new carbon market are described in Article 6 of the Paris Agreement.
• Article 6.2 authorizes bilateral agreements for the transfer of emission reductions.
• Article 6.4 talks about a larger carbon market in which anyone can buy and sell reductions.
• Article 6.8 establishes that "non-trade approaches" are available for countries to achieve their objectives.

When will Paris Agreement come into force?

• Thirty days after the date on which at least 55 Parties to the Convention representing at least 55% of total global greenhouse gas emissions have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession to the Depositary.
• The threshold for entry into force of the Paris Agreement was reached on October 5, 2016.
• The Paris Agreement will enter into force on November 4, 2016.

Greenhouse gas emissions are a new product

Parties with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B parts) have agreed to limit or reduce emissions. These objectives are expressed in authorized emission levels, or allocated quantities, during the 2008-2012 commitment period. Authorized emissions are divided into units of assigned quantity (AAU).

Emissions trading allow countries with remaining emission units, authorized but not “used”, to sell this excess capacity to countries who are above your goals.

As a result, a new product has been created in the form of emission reductions or eliminations. Since carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas, people are just talking about trading with carbon.

Carbon is now tracked and traded like any other product. This is called the “carbon market”.

Benefits of emissions trading

• Emissions trading achieve the environmental goal of reducing emissions at the lowest cost.
• Emissions trading encourage innovation and identifies lower cost solutions to make businesses more sustainable.
• Cap and trade have proven to be an effective policy option.
• Emissions trading can respond better to economic fluctuations than other political tools.
• The limit and the trade are designed to generate an environmental result: the limit must be respected or there are sanctions such as fines. Allowing trade within this limit is the most effective way to minimize costs, which is good for businesses and good for households.

Disadvantages

• It is very difficult to create a market for something of no intrinsic value such as carbon dioxide. It must promote scarcity and strictly limit the right of delivery so that it can be marketed.
• In the world’s largest carbon trading system, the EU ETS, political interference has created an excess of permits.
• These were often given away for free, which led to a collapse in prices and not to actual emission reductions. Another problem is that compensatory permits, obtained by paying for pollution reduction in the poorest countries, can also be traded.

ALSO, SEE RELATED RAJYA SABHA VIDEOS

• Anticipatory Bail
• The Aircraft (amendment) bill, 2020
• Education & Aspiring India
• Endangered Species
• Census: Importance and Challenges
• Pornography: Impact on children and society

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The post RSTV topic on CARBON TRADING & CLIMATE CHANGE for UPSC appeared first on .

Introduction

The Supreme Court delivered a significant verdict, ruling that a time limit cannot be set when an advance bond is granted. He also spoke about the freedom movement when people were imprisoned for protesting the British government. Although he regrets that arbitrary detentions remain a widespread phenomenon. The Superior Court stated that the discretion of the courts to grant early bail cannot be reduced and may continue until the end of a trial. Over the years, early bail has become a guarantee for a person who has false accusations or charges against them, most often due to professional or personal enmity, as it guarantees the person's release falsely accused even before he or she is arrested.

Bail

• It concerns the provisional release of an accused in a criminal case in which the court has not yet announced a decision.
• The term "bond" refers to security posted to appear in court for release.
• A defendant receives a bullet after submitting a bond to the court.
• The main purpose of the arrest is to ensure that the accused in a criminal case appears before the court for the transmission of justice.
• However, if the presence of the person on trial can be guaranteed without putting them in prison, it would be unfair and unjust to violate a person's liberty. Therefore, bail can be granted as probation for the defendant.

Types of Bail in India

Regular bail: This is an order made by the court (any court in the country) to release a person already under arrest and in police custody. For such a bond, a person may submit a request under articles 437 and 439 of the CrPC.

Provisional bail: Bond granted for a temporary and brief period by the Court until the request requested by the advance bond or the regular deposit is pending before a court.

Advance bail: In order to release a person on bail even before his arrest. In this situation, the arrest is apprehended and the person is not arrested before the bond is granted. For such bail, a person may apply under section 438 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC). It is issued only by the Court of Sessions and the Superior Court.

Crimes and Anticipation

A request for early release may be made in the case of fictitious and non-fictitious crimes. While in the first situation, the Voucher is granted in law, the granting of the Voucher in the latter case is not a question of law but a privilege and is at the request of the Court's discretion.

Bail offense: Section 436 of the CPC sets out provisions for granting bail to a person accused of a bail offense under the ICC.

Fictitious offenses are crimes or offenses which are not of a very serious nature and include: illegal gathering (article 144 of the CrPC), payment of corruption during elections, fabrication of false evidence, participation in riots, communication of false information, negligent death (article 304A), stalking, criminal defamation, etc.

Non-recoverable offense: Article 437 of the CPC establishes the power of the court to grant bail to a person accused of having committed a non-bail offense under the ICC.

Crimes that cannot be saved are serious and serious crimes which include: sedition, making or attempting to wage war on government, counterfeiting of Indian currency, murder (section 302), death by dowry (article 304B), incitement to suicide, trafficking in a person, rape (article 376), etc.

Factors and conditions for granting the bail

The anticipated bail is granted on the basis of the following factors:

• Nature and gravity of the charge
• Possibility for the applicant to flee justice
• Previous cases against the plaintiff, including previous convictions or recognizable crimes
• Dance violation:
  o If there is sufficient reason to believe that the accused did not commit the crime.
  o According to the Court, if there are sufficient reasons to continue the investigation into the matter.
  o If the person is not charged with a crime punishable by death, life imprisonment or
  imprisonment of up to 10 years or more.

• Non-dancing offenses:
  o If the accused is a woman or a child,
  o If there is a lack of adequate evidence,
  o In the event of a delay in the registration of the FIR by the applicant
  o If the defendant is physically or seriously ill,
  o If there is corroboration of personal animosity between the accused and the applicant.

Criticism against the advance deposit

According to the SC in the preceding sentences, early bail is the most abused section of the CrPC. The discretion conferred on higher courts and lower courts is repeatedly invoked by persons accused of heinous crimes.

A large number of bail requests before the arrest of rapists, accused of triple murder and most of the corrupt ones flood the HC and precious time of the superior court is devoted to the processing of bail applications.

Since the state legislature has the powers necessary to amend the provisions of the code, states such as Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal have slightly different early release provisions, where Uttar Pradesh even omitted the provision of section 438, so it doesn’t. There is nothing like an advance bond in the state of Uttar Pradesh.

How to ask for a bail in India?

• The bail process depends on the stage of the criminal case. In the event that the person has not yet been arrested by the court but is concerned that an FIR may be brought against him or her before the police, the person may hire a criminal defense lawyer in India to file an advance bail request.
• For example, if the person is afraid that his wife will file a false 498A case against her, she can get an advance bond before the police file a complaint against him.
• If the police have already arrested the person and taken him or her to the police station, the bail lawyer can post bail in accordance with the bail request form contained in the CrPC. The bail application must be submitted and approved by the court, then submitted to the police to release the prisoner from prison.
• The amount of the bond or the bond which will be deposited depends on the discretion of the court. However, a standardized bond is established and posted as a bond in less serious criminal cases.

Cancellation of the bail

• Section 437 (5) and section CrPC 439 deals with the cancellation of the early bond. They imply that a court which has the power to grant early bail also has the right to cancel the bail or revoke the bail order after an appropriate examination of the facts.
• A superior court or a district court may order that any person released on bail be arrested and detained after making a request by the plaintiff or the prosecutor.
• However, a court does not have the power to cancel the bail given by the police.
• Over the years, advance bonding has served as protection (granted under section 438 of the CrPC) to protect a person against whom false charges or charges have been laid. Ensure the release of this falsely accused person even before his arrest.

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Introduction

Recently, a new virus belonging to the Coronavirus family (now called the new coronavirus 2019-nCoV) has killed more than 200 people in China and the number of infected has affected 10,000 confirmed cases. As the epidemic continues to spread outside of China, the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared it a public health emergency of international concern (global emergency).

As part of the global emergency, all countries must be prepared for containment, including active surveillance, early detection, isolation and case management, contact tracing and prevention of the spread of the disease infection by 2019-nCoV, and share comprehensive data with WHO.

What is the new corona virus 2019-nCoV?

• Normally, the corona virus is a large family of viruses that are often the cause of respiratory infections, including the common cold.
• Most viruses are common in animals, but sometimes an animal-borne corona virus mutates and successfully finds a human host.
• According to the World Health Organization, in previous epidemics due to other corona viruses, person-to-person transmission has occurred through droplets or objects in contact, suggesting that the mode of transmission 2019-nCoV can be the same.
• Antibiotics do not work against such viral pneumonia and there is no vaccine against them.
• Even more important is the new understanding that the virus is contagious even during incubation, that is, even before the patient has symptoms. This function enhances transmissibility.

New 2019-nCoV corona virus: a human-made disaster

• The relationship between zoonotic pathogens, those of animal origin, and global pandemics is not new. In the past five years alone, the world has faced epidemics of dreaded viruses such as Ebola, MERS (Middle East respiratory syndrome), SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) and now the new corona virus.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that around one billion cases of disease and millions of deaths from zoonoses worldwide occur every year, that is, naturally transmitted diseases and infections by vertebrates and animals.
• About 60% of emerging infectious diseases worldwide are zoonoses. Of more than 30 new human pathogens detected in the past three decades, 75% came from animals.
• According to the WHO, where there is a close mixture of humans and animals, especially the unregulated handling of blood and other bodily products, as occurs, for example, in animal markets in China, there are greater possibilities of transmitting an animal virus to humans, and their mutation to adapt to the human body.
• Animal markets are breeding grounds because there is a pathogen-free exchange between species and mutations.

Transmission

Human corona viruses are most often transmitted from an infected person to others by:

• the air while coughing and sneezing
• close personal contact, such as touching or shaking hands
• touch an object or surface with the virus, then touch your mouth, nose, or eyes before washing your hands
• rarely faecal contamination

Symptoms of the new virus include:

• Fever
• Cough
• Muscle pain
• Tiredness
• Breathing difficulties
• May cause pneumonia (infection of one or both lungs)
• Can be deadly

After a slow start in an infected body, the disease spreads quickly during the second week.

The hypoxemia caused by the intensification of the lung lesion leads to breathing difficulties and the need for oxygen therapy.

Another common complication seen is ARDS (acute respiratory distress syndrome).

Other complications include acute kidney damage, septic shock, and virus-induced heart damage.

The incubation period of the virus varies from 2 to 14 days.

The incubation period is the time that begins from exposure to the virus until symptoms appear.

During the incubation period, the Wuhan virus is contagious.

Other human corona viruses

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)

• Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) is a serious respiratory disease that mainly affects the upper respiratory tract. It causes fever, cough and shortness of breath. About 30% of people who have contracted this disease have died. Some people have only mild symptoms.
• MERS is caused by the Corona virus of the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV). It was first reported in Saudi Arabia in 2012, and then spread to many countries. Most cases have been transmitted by people who have travelled to countries in the Middle East

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

• Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a severe form of pneumonia. Infection with the SARS virus causes acute respiratory distress (severe respiratory distress) and, sometimes, death.
• Expand section SARS is caused by a member of the corona virus family (the same family that can cause colds). The 2003 epidemic is believed to have started when the virus spread from small mammals to China

Global impact of the (Corona Virus) epidemic on China’s economic activities

• An article published in 2017 by economists Victoria Fan, Dean Jamison and Lawrence Summers estimated that the expected annual losses due to the risk of pandemic amount to approximately 500 billion dollars, or 0.6% of world income per year, which represents both the loss of income as an intrinsic cost of high mortality.
• Wuhan, which was the center of the epidemic, is a large industrial center, a regional center, important equipment in the automobile industry and a magnet for foreign companies.
• The epidemic has caused economic activity in China to stagnate. It has also affected economic activities around the world.
• GDP growth in the first quarter of 2020 could be around 5% and the possibility of falling below 5% cannot be excluded, according to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Some analysts have warned that the worst-case scenario could lead to an economic contraction.
• Most industries in China closed during the two weeks around the Lunar New Year. The blockade in the country prevents business travel, as well as the movement of goods and workers.
• The time of the Lunar New Year is usually when most of the economic activity increases in China.
• There is a growing concern for integrated international supply chains.
• Closing a business in China also affects economic activities worldwide. Economists believe that perhaps 0.3 percentage points could be affected by global growth.
• Bangladesh derives 85% of its foreign exchange earnings from the clothing and apparel industry. However, they import the fabric from China.

Wuhan Corona virus – Indian Context

• The first case of new corona virus in India has been confirmed in Kerala; the patient is a student at Wuhan University on January 30, 2020. She had returned to her hometown.
• Two other cases from the same state of Kerala have been confirmed.
• The state government of Kerala has declared a “state calamity”.
• On March 3, 2020, two new cases were detected in Delhi and telangana. Both patients are said to be stable.
• As of March 5, 2020, with more than 23 confirmed cases in the country, the total number of infections in India increased to 29, including 14 Italian tourists.
• The Union’s Minister of Health has told Parliament that 28,529 people are being watched.
• Government authorities have taken numerous steps to prevent further spread of the virus.
• Travel advisories are being revised as new updates on the corona virus are confirmed.
• Anyone with a travel history in China since January 15 could be quarantined.
• The government also issued a warning to travelers to China and urged people to refrain from visiting the country.
• Electronic visa facilities have been blocked for Chinese citizens at this time. The electronic visa already issued will also be invalid.

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Aircraft Amendment Bill

Introduction

The government presented a bill to Lok Sabha on Tuesday to amend the aircraft law, according to which the amount of the fines will drop from 10 lakh rupees to 1 crore rupees. The 2020 Aircraft Amendment Bill also plans to keep “aircraft belonging to the Union armed forces, military or air forces” outside the Aircraft Act of 1934.

Once the changes have been approved, the government would also have the power to issue instructions to revise, if necessary in the public interest, any order approved by the General Directorate of Civil Aviation (DGAC), the Office of Safety and Security.

The bill was introduced by the Minister of State for Parliamentary Affairs, Arjun Ram Meghwal, since the Minister of State for Civil Aviation, Hardeep Singh Puri, was not present in the House. The proposed changes to the law were approved by the Cabinet of the Union in December. The law refers to the control of the manufacture, possession, use, operation, sale, import and export of aircraft.

Key points of the bill

The Aircraft Modification Bill proposes that regulations in all areas of air navigation fall within the scope of the law.

• The amendment will also comply with the safety conditions of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
• It will also assist the three aviation regulators in India: the Directorate General of Aviation (DGCA), the Office of Civil Aviation Safety (BCAS) and the Office of Aviation Accident Investigation (AAIB) ) to better fulfill their function.
• The proposed changes would meet the safety requirements of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
• It is also proposed to authorize the BCAS or any authorized agent to give instructions, to designate agents to judge sanctions and to introduce a provision to aggravate crimes.

Need of new amendment

• Increase in the number of air safety violations or violations in recent years: Recently, Airbus A320neo aircraft equipped with Pratt and Whitney engines could have had catastrophic consequences, as many of these aircraft have experienced air failures.
• The DGCA had asked Indigo and Go Air, which still use this version of the aircraft, to install modified engines or to replace the entire fleet of these aircraft.
• There have also been numerous reports of aircraft facing other technical drawback and, ultimately, this could generate a sense of fear among passengers.

Create an enabling environment

• The bill aims to empower the central government to establish the DGCA, BCAS and AAIB under the law, as well as to clarify their responsibilities.
• It would also make the regulation of all areas of air navigation services governed by law.
• This bill would allow the three regulators of the civil aviation sector in India, namely the DGCA, the BCAS and the AAIB, to be more efficient.

Adoption of international standards

• The bill contains provisions to ensure the safety of air operations in India and to conduct civil aviation operations in accordance with the standards, procedures and practices established by ICAO.
• According to the statement of the ICAO audits, carried out in 2012 and 2015, they indicated the need to amend the law to grant adequate recognition to regulators under the law.
• The modifications would meet the requirements of ICAO.

Indian Civil Aviation Sector

• The Indian civil aviation sector has high growth potential and, at present, the national airlines planned together have nearly 680 aircraft.
• The 2019-2020 economic survey indicated that, to continue the high growth trajectory, the government provided a pleasant environment for Indian carriers to double their fleet from approximately 680 aircraft in late November 2019 to more than 1200 for the fiscal year 2023-24.
• ICAO carried out the universal safety oversight audit program for India in November 2017 and February 2018. The result of the audit showed that the country’s score decreased to 57.44% from 65, 82%. % Back, placing India below Pakistan and Nepal.
• An ICAO team also visited India in November 2018 and assessed actions taken in three areas that were audited by ICAO in November 2015.

Challenges for regulators

• These regulatory agencies must create a basic role or type of guidelines for operations from a technical security perspective.
• Previous security was the main consideration, but over the past 30 years, security has become an equally serious problem.
• Updating knowledge: technology is evolving too fast. Regulators do not compete with this speed.
• Induction of a skilled technical workforce: being part of the government, they cannot attract the best talent. Its training infrastructure and regulatory system are a bit outdated.
• There is no good research and development (R&D) division that deals with aircraft problems.

Way forward

• Need to improve technical skills.
• There was no provision to establish liability and there are no regulations for drones and drones, this amendment will cover these issues.
• The country’s civil aviation sector faces many difficult problems and this step can help solve them.

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Introduction

In the budget for the Union 2020, the Minister of Finance Nirmala Sitharaman suggested a rapid implementation of the new education policy, in addition to several measures which will bring about a paradigm shift in education systems and the creation of jobs in India and abroad.

The budget allocated 99,300 million rupees for the education sector in 2020-2021 and around 3,000 million rupees for skills development. In the previous Union budget, the government allocation for the sector was Rs 94.8 billion. The FM said about 150 higher education institutions will start integrated diploma/ apprenticeship courses by March 2021 and start a program through which local urban agencies across the country will offer internship opportunities to new engineers for a period of up to a year.

To create infrastructure in the education sector, measures would be taken to enable the supply of external commercial loans and FDI to be able to provide better quality education. Institutions ranked among the top 100 in the national institutional ranking will begin a comprehensive online education program for students in the private section of society.

Provisions governing education in the Indian Constitution

• According to article 21-A of the Constitution of India, education is a fundamental right.
• Article 21-A stipulates that “the State must provide free and compulsory education to all children aged six to fourteen, in the manner determined by the State by law”.
• The Right to Education Act (RTE) is the resulting legislation.

New education policy

• The FM reported that about 150 higher education institutions will start integrated diploma / degree courses by March 2021 and will start a program through which local urban agencies across the country will provide internship opportunities for new engineers over a period Up to one year.
• To create infrastructure in the education sector, measures would be taken to enable the supply of external commercial loans (ECB) and FDI to be able to provide better quality education.
• Institutions ranked in the top 100 as part of the national institutional ranking will begin a comprehensive online education program for students in the private sectors of society.
• There are provisions for the establishment of medical schools with hospitals at district level supported by extensive viable public funds. It is a measure aimed at bringing about a revolution in the teaching of medical sciences.
• Another big bang reform that the government introduced in the budget is to carryout an online joint entry test (CET) for all unpublished positions through a national independent recruiting body to be put in place.
• The Minister of Finance has also presented a proposal to introduce an IND-SAT exam as part of the "Study in India" program for Asian and African countries to assess foreign applicants who receive scholarships to study at centers of study.

Skills development in the new educational policy

• Lack of skills development can cause a demographic disaster, therefore the focus on skills development is of utmost importance.
• The new education policy focuses on skills development, recognizing that India currently produces a large number of graduates with no employable skills. There is a large gap between education and the knowledge and skills among graduates.
• The education sector is dominated by titles, not skills.
• The Ministries of Health and Skills Development and Entrepreneurship, in collaboration with professional bodies, would design a special bridging course with the aim of achieving equivalence and improving the skill set of teachers, nurses, paramedics and caregivers.

Issues and challenges in the education sector

• The needs of higher education and school education have not been met. Only around 12% of schools comply with RTE.
• Quality of education: the right to education has not guaranteed quality education for the poor due to system failures and lack of regular monitoring
• This creates a bias between students who can afford private schools and those who attend public schools.
• Public schools have become synonymous with poor quality education.
• Teachers: The shortage of teachers is also a problem.
• Teachers are often absent from government institutes or participate in non- educational activities.
• Teacher training institutes are mostly private institutes that provide lower quality training for teachers.
• School infrastructure: most schools lack basic facilities, such as separate bathrooms for girls and boys, playgrounds, and some schools even lack sufficient classrooms.
• Lack of focus on skills: there is a large gap between industrialists and academics, which affects the development of general skills among students. Most graduates do not have the necessary skills required by employers.
• Commercialization of education: the education sector was commercialized, which prevented students from accessing equal and quality education. Students in private schools have access to better education and facilities than students in public schools.

Way Forward

• Secondary education and training must go hand in hand.
• Competency framework needs to be improved
• Higher education institutions must offer professional courses integrated into undergraduate education programs.

Conclusion

• At school level, the element of vocational training must be integrated. Education needs innovation to stay fresh and relevant.
• Powered by technology and tools, our education system can be expanded to build and empower our citizens to help the country on the path to becoming a digital and knowledge economy.
• Universities are always places of the future: the future is formed in its pots, its classrooms and its conversations. Universities must be open, question, trust, experiment, inspire, give direction and allow people to believe that nothing is impossible.
• Governments and their bureaucracies will need to free up institutions to allow them to make their own decisions.
  For any development of higher education to bear fruit, it must be supported by strengthening primary education. China has achieved this.
• New distance learning technology must be fully used to improve standards of education and knowledge.

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Endangered Species

The endangered species (EN) is a population of organisms threatened with extinction because it is very small or threatened by changes in environmental or predation parameters. It could also mean that due to deforestation there may be a lack of food and / or water. Consequently, it is considered to face a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

A species becomes extinct when the last extant member of that species dies. Consequently, extinction becomes a certainty when there is no surviving individual who can reproduce and create a new generation.

A species can be functionally extinct when only a handful of individuals survive, which cannot reproduce due to health problems, age, dispersed distribution over a wide range, lack of individuals of both sexes or for other reasons.

Reasons for the extinction of species

• The main reasons for the extinction are of natural or human origin. Thanks to evolution, new species emerge through the process of speciation and the species disappear when they can no longer survive in changing conditions or against greater competition.
• A typical species dies within 10 million years of its first appearance, although some species, called living fossils, survive virtually unchanged for hundreds of millions of years.
• However, extinction is generally a natural phenomenon; It is estimated that 99.9% of all species that have lived have now disappeared.
• Several anthropogenic activities that causes extinction are artificial reasons. It is only recently that scientists have been alarmed by the high rates of recent extinctions due to various anthropogenic activities.

IUCN Red List

• The IUCN Red List of Endangered Species founded in 1964, is the world’s most comprehensive inventory of the state conservation of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the world’s leading authority on the conservation status of species.
• Over 77,300 species have been assessed on the IUCN Red List.
• According to the latest information on the IUCN Red List 2019:
• 41% of amphibians are threatened
• 33% of coral reefs are in the threat category.

IUCN objectives

The International Union for Conservation of Nature works to achieve the following objectives:

• Provide scientific data on the state of species and subspecies in the world.
• Address the factors of concern and spread awareness of species and the extinction of biodiversity.
• Plan a design for biodiversity conservation.

Wildlife Protection Act 1972

• The law provides for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants and related matters, in order to guarantee the ecological and environmental security of India.
• It prohibits the use of animal traps, except in certain circumstances.
• Protects the hunting rights of the tribes listed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• It contains provisions for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
• It has six appendices that offer different degrees of protection.
• The species listed in Appendix I and in Part II of Appendix II benefit from absolute protection: the crimes covered by these penalties are punished with the most severe penalties
• Species included in Appendices III and IV are also protected, but the penalties are much lower.
• Annex V includes animals that can be hunted.
• The plants in Annex VI are prohibited from cultivation and planting.

Several types of protected areas can be notified in law, namely:

• Sanctuaries: The state or central government may, by notification, declare its intention to establish an area as a sanctuary to protect wildlife and the environment. The government determines the nature and extent of the rights of people in or on the sanctuary lands.
• National parks: The state or central government can declare an area, whether inside a sanctuary or not, as a national park for the purpose of protecting and developing wildlife and its environment. The state government cannot change the boundaries of a national park unless recommended by the National Wildlife Board. Grazing is not allowed inside a national park.
• Conservation reserves: The state government, after consulting the local communities, can declare any area belonging to the government, in particular the areas adjacent to national parks or sanctuaries, as conservation reserves. The government establishes a conservation reserve management committee to manage and conserve the conservation reserve.
• Community reserves: The state government may, in consultation with the community or a person who has volunteered to conserve wildlife, declare any private or community land as a community reserve. The state government will establish a community reserve management committee to conserve and manage the reserve.
• Reserve of tigers: These zones were reserved for the protection of tigers in the country. The state government, on the recommendation of the Tiger Conservation Authority, can notify an area as a tiger reserve, for which it must prepare a tiger conservation plan.

The factors responsible for the extinction of the flora and fauna in the world are the following:

Over-exploitation of species

• Either for human consumption, use, development of by-products or for sport. Poaching has been a great threat that continues endlessly.

Habitat loss

• Habitat destruction: people who directly destroy habitat include filling wetlands, dredging rivers, cutting fields and cutting down trees. Commercial activities such as mining and quarrying have destroyed many ecologically sensitive areas. Example: iron ore extraction in the Western Ghats of India.
• Habitat fragmentation: much of the remaining terrestrial terrestrial habitat has been cut into fragments by roads and development. The habitats of aquatic species have been fragmented by dams and water diversions. These habitat fragments may not be large enough or connected enough to support species that need a large territory where they can find companions and food.

Climate change

• As climate change changes temperature and climate patterns, it also affects the lives of plants and animals. Scientists expect the amount and range of species, which define biodiversity, to decrease dramatically as
  temperatures continue to rise.
• The combustion of fossil fuels for energy and animal agriculture are two of the main contributors to global warming, along with deforestation.
• The spread of non-native species around the world: a single species (us) occupying a significant percentage of the physical space and production of the world; and the human actions that increasingly direct evolution.

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What is Census?

• The population census is the whole process of collecting, analyzing or disseminating demographic, economic and social data linked to all people in a country or part well-defined country.
• As such, the census provides a snapshot of the country’s population and housing at any given time.
• The census provides information on the size, distribution and socioeconomic, demographic and other characteristics of the population in the country.
• “Rig-Veda” reveals that a certain type of population count was maintained during 800- 600 BC in India.
• Arthashastr from “Kautilya” written in the third century BC. C. prescribes the collection of demographic statistics as a measure of state tax policy.
• A systematic and modern census of the population, in its current form, was carried out in a non-synchronous manner between 1865 and 1872 in different parts of the country.
• However, the first synchronous census in India took place in 1881. Since then, censuses have been taken continuously once every ten years.
• The last census in India was carried out in 2011, when the country’s population was Rs. 121 million. Along with this, the Indian census is one of the largest administrative exercises in the world.

Background of Census

India has a long history of census. Even the Rig Veda literature reveals that the enumeration of the population was carried out during these periods. Arthashastr de Chanakya also points out the importance of carrying out the census as a fiscal measure. In the Middle Ages, the Mughal emperor Akbar also had a kind of population count.

In the modern era, the census started with the British authorities carrying out the census of the city of Allahabad in 1824. After that, in 1827-1828, Benares also had a census. The first complete census of an Indian city was carried out by Dhaka (now in Bangladesh) by Henry Walter in 1830.

1941 saw the last census before independence. After India’s independence, the Bhore Committee recommended that the government appoint a central and provincial registrar of demographic and demographic statistics.

According to the recommendations of the Committee, the Census Act came into force in 1948. The 1951 census was conducted in accordance with this law.

The enumeration period for the 1951 census was February 9 to 28. Questions that are related to an individual’s name, age, religion, sex, relationship, economic status, primary and subsidiary livelihoods, mother tongue and literacy were asked.

The National Register of Citizens of India (NRC) was established after this census. The entire State of Jammu and Kashmir was omitted during this census and the data for this State were taken on the basis of previous figures.

This census revealed that the country’s population was 36,10,88,090. The male to female ratio
was 1: 0.946. Only 18% of the population could read and write and the average life expectancy was only 32 years.

Importance of Census

The census is one of the most reliable sources of information on the following:

• Demography
• Economic activity
• Literacy and education
• Housing and home services
• Urbanization, fertility and mortality.
• Listed breeds and tribes
• Language
• The census began for the first time under British Viceroy Lord Mayo in 1872. It helped to develop new government policies and programs to improve areas for improvement in the community.

Highlights from the 2011 Indian Census

The 2011 Census of India was organized in two stages: trails, house list, house census and population count. The population of India increased by more than 181 million during the decade 2001-2011.

According to the 2011 Census of India demographic report, it is linked to 1.21 billion, an increase of more than 181 million over the past 10 years. Here we give the data and key data of the census of India.

The 15th Census of India and the 7th Census of Independent India-2011 began on April 1, 2010 with the President as the first citizen to be registered, followed by the Vice-President of India.

The motto of the 2011 census was "Our census, our future. C. Chandramouli was the 2011 Indian Census Commissioner.

The 2011 Census of India took place in two stages:

• List of houses and housing census: (April to September 2010)
• Population count (February 9 to 28, 2011)

The nation’s population according to preliminary figures from the 2011 census is 1,210.19 million, of which 623.7 million (51.54%) are men and 586.46 million (48.46%) are women. Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in India, considered the population rather than the population of Brazil.

Challenges and Experiences

• Cost of carrying out the census

One of the biggest challenges associated with carrying out the census in poor countries is the enormous financial cost of carrying out the exercise. It is no secret that it is extremely expensive to conduct a census.

The high illiteracy rate in a country has a negative impact on the conduct of the census, countries where a large part of their illiterate population faces a great challenge during the censuses.

• Inadequate infrastructure in some areas

There are some places in the world where it is very difficult to carry out an effective population census due to poor infrastructure, such as poor roads, inaccessible roads or insufficient roads which link several cities and towns.

Traditional and religious beliefs can interfere with census exercise in many underdeveloped regions of the world where traditional beliefs are on the agenda, enumerators face serious challenges when they arrive at these places
and try to count people.

• Corruption interferes with the census

Corruption during the census can make it difficult to conduct an effective population census that provides accurate population figures.

• Insufficient census experts

Another problem linked to carrying out censuses in certain parts of the world is the insufficient number of professionals with the knowledge and experience necessary to carry out censuses.

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